5. Implementation of Conventions
During the Rio Summit, Botswana signed the Conventions on Biological Diversity (CBD) and on Climate Change (CCC). Earlier, GoB had also ratified the Convention on Trade in Endangered Species (CITES, in 1977), and the Vienna Convention and Montreal Protocol related to protection of the Ozone layer (1991). Since the Rio Summit, the UN Convention to combat desertification (1996) and the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (1997) were ratified.
5.1 Biodiversity, wildlife and wetlands
The NCSA is the national secretariat for the CBD and coordinates activities of different stakeholders. Two national reports on implementation of the CBD were published, and a draft National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan is due to be developed with participation from stakeholders from relevant GoB Departments and representatives from Civil Society. Several NGOs have also organised workshops to improve awareness regarding CBD.
Despite this framework, a lot of work remains to be done to slow or stop the decline in biodiversity in Botswana. Positive notes are that regular large mammal (game) surveys and research on specific animal species are undertaken, 40% of land is reserved for wildlife management and 70% of timber forests are protected.
For more than a decade, community-based natural resources management (CBNRM) has proven to be a potentially successful approach to sustainable management of natural resources and conservation of biodiversity. It has been advocated and tested by several NGOs and CBOs with positive results. This has now led to a draft CBNRM policy. To successfully implement this, communities will truly have to be empowered to manage projects. However, the current situation is most often that management is carried out by a partner entity (GoB, business, NGO) and that the real decision-maker regarding natural resources remains Central Government.
While there is general concern regarding Botswana’s biodiversity, a major problem that needs to be addressed is the lack of baseline data. No inventories exist for all species with exception of the (large) mammals, no records are established of indigenous knowledge (IK) and there is little or no data regarding disappearing or threatened species. As new species are being recorded in the Okavango, undoubtedly others are becoming extinct without having been identified. NGOs such as Permaculture Trust of Botswana (PTB), Thusano Lefatsheng, Veld Products and the Forestry Association of Botswana (FAB), work on different aspects of collecting and preserving species varieties, such as tree species, land races, wild crop relatives and other veld products.
| -> The expression ‘veld product” is used throughout southern Africa to indicate any indigenous non-timber products that can be harvested in the wild. These traditionally provide for a number of needs including nutritive and medicinal. With declining interest in their use and threats of developments, invasive species and genetic pollution, the veld product diversity is under threat, as is the vast knowledge associated with it. |
Many species have medical and/or commercial applications. The recent patenting of a diet drug based on the Hoodia, the liquor made from the fruit of the marula and the grapple tea are well-known examples. They also illustrate the pitfalls: without documentation and property rights the local communities will not benefit from any “discoveries” such as the Hoodia; and foreign businesses capable of using plant tissue culture techniques to grow the grapple may well succeed in eliminating competition by obtaining inclusion of the naturally grown plant on the CITES list. An issue to be addressed is the lack of legislation addressing access and benefit sharing, and the need for regulation of import and export.
A draft CBNRM policy exists, but scattering of responsibilities within Government (NCSA is situated within Land, Housing and Environment while Agriculture is the main Ministry involved) tends to lead to slow progress for any legislation related to a cross-sectorial issue such as biodiversity.
A specific concern for Botswana (and most likely the whole of Africa) is Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs). This is one of the emerging critical issues, and needs to be addressed at the WSSD. It will be important for Civil Society to lobby for control mechanisms on trade or production of GMOs, and to research potential impacts.
Wildlife has been the main initial focus of environmental management in Botswana. Current concerns are the overpopulation of elephants and the general problems of co-existence of livestock with wildlife, which need a sustainable solution. In this context, and in view of the presence of an estimated 2.4M heads of cattle and 2.4M goats, there is a need to study their impact and establish carrying capacities for wildlife and livestock, and strategies for co-existence.
Among the successful wildlife programmes in Botswana is the Khama Rhino Sanctuary, where this virtually extinct species has been reintroduced since 1992/1993.
-> The CITES convention and the elephant problem in Botswana.
It is estimated that Botswana’s elephant population has doubled in the past 10 years, to a figure of 120.000, exceeding the estimated carrying capacity, with devastating results for their own and everyone else’s habitat. It has been reported that their range has expanded by 46%. There is some support within Civil Society for lobbying for the lifting of trading restrictions and/or for compensation measures. However, a durable solution to the problem lies in regional management. If populations in north-eastern Namibia and southern Angola can benefit from the elephant presence and poaching is effectively prevented, the elephants can reclaim their past rangelands. This is clearly an issue that has to be negotiated internationally. The recent regional pre-SITES meeting hosted by KCS and DWNP saw the SADC countries agree to a joint position regarding authorised sales and/or trade in live animals. |
The Okavango Delta, listed as a Ramsar site, is Botswana’s most famous natural monument. The Delta is a fragile eco-system with a wealth of known and most likely some unknown species. Much research is undertaken by Government Departments, Universities (UB and international), and NGOs ; but coordination and strategic planning is lacking. IUCN’s initiative has led to the NGO’s working in the area to draft a strategic plan. The Delta also depends on water from the river of the same name, which is shared with Angola and Namibia. Potential dams, pipelines or other water schemes upstream would severely damage this fragile ecosystem.
5.2 Climate change, ozone depletion and desertification
While the CCC and Montreal Protocol were ratified, Botswana has yet to sign the Kyoto protocol. Studies have been undertaken in terms of the country’s carbon and ozone depleting emissions. A National Ozone Unit has been established at the Department of Meteorological Services. Botswana is a net sink for greenhouse gases, however in a semi-arid region it is clearly vulnerable to climate change. Currently, models predict that global warming may increase the temperature in Botswana by several degrees. This would have a direct negative impact on water availability and would contribute to desertification.
Although Botswana has ratified the UN convention to combat desertification in 1994, the National Action Programme to Combat Desertification is still in the draft stage. There is some concern within Civil Society that this is not seen as a priority. There is a need for research into areas vulnerable to desertification, which should be identified and monitored. Mitigation plans should be established, and preventive protection measures taken.
With current predictions from the National Water Master Plan estimating that water demand will exceed capacity by 2020, potential temperature increases due to global warming could accelerate this and result in water problems within the next decade. Without regional agreements regarding the shared rivers, it is easy to see the potential for a serious problem and even a regional conflict.
It is generally agreed that water management (or lack of it) is the main cause of the water shortage. Knowledge and technology are certainly available to reduce water consumption, and it is estimated that wastewater in Gaborone alone could provide an extra 10% of the current national consumption. The case of Windhoek, which despite a doubling of its population between 1989 and 1996 kept its water needs at the same level through re-use, shows what can be done in a similar environment.
Water conservation in Gaborone is promoted by NGOs such as ST and KCS (Kalahari Conservation Society). The mining industry has developed techniques for maximum water-efficiency and re-use. R&D is available from RIIC (Rural Industries Innovation Centre) and BOTEC (Botswana Technology Centre) on water-efficiency and reuse. BOTEC has built a water-efficient (and energy-efficient) office building and a factory, and thus gained extensive expertise, which is unfortunately not used in new building developments. There is a need to revise Building Control Regulations, dating from 1962 (but based on the UK’s regulations of almost a century ago !).
Domestic energy is still mainly reliant on wood. Even in Gaborone, an estimated 79% of households use wood as the main source of energy. Development of local energy sources for electricity production is focused on coal. Estimated coal reserves warrant consideration of coal as a viable national source of energy, but there is a need for long-term impact assessment and research into efficient and clean burning technologies.
With more than 3000 hours of sun annually, and a low population density, Botswana is an ideal country for the use of solar power. While model plants have been established and households systems developed by BOTEC and RIIC, this technology is not yet adopted within national development programmes – less than 1% of the energy supply is from renewable sources. There is a need to assess long-term cost-efficiency of grid-extending programmes for rural electrification compared to renewable energy technology.
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